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Paper production is basically a two-step process in which a fibrous raw material is first converted into pulp, and then the pulp is converted into paper. The harvestedwood is first processed so that the fibres are separated from the unusable fraction of the wood, the lignin. Pulp making can be done mechanically or chemically. In the chemical pulping process, alkali (e.g., sodium hydroxide in the form of a lye or caustic soda) is usually used to remove the lignin that binds the fibres. So, for degumming of raw material, caustic soda is used.

A magnifying glass is a convex lens that is used to produce a magnified image of an object. It is also called a hand lens in laboratory contexts.

In a nucleosome, the DNA is wrapped around histone octamer.